The below blog post is a research paper that I wrote this past semester (Spring 2015).
The
Battle of New Orleans was the last major battle of the War of 1812. The battle
actually took place after the conclusion of the war. This battle was
significant because it put down the British threat once and for all, and it
also made Andrew Jackson a household name. This paper will examine the battle.
It will look at the events leading up to, during and after the battle. This
paper will also examine how this battle made Andrew Jackson a household name,
and paved his way to the White House.
The War of 1812 had
been fought as America’s second war of independence from Britain. The war was
primarily made up of naval engagements. There were a few battles however that
were fought on land. Andrew Jackson of Tennessee was one of the leading
generals during the war. Jackson had a personal vendetta against the British.
Many accounts state that Jackson and his brother had been captured by the
British as young scouts during the Revolutionary War. While in captivity he and
his brother were beaten. Jackson’s mother came to plea for the release of her
sons, but to no avail. Jackson’s mother and his brother later contracted a
disease from the British and passed away. Jackson never forgave the British for
this.
Andrew Jackson was
primarily an Indian fighter during the early stages of the War of 1812. Jackson
and his men did much of their fighting in the southern region of the United
States. This region is now made up of Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia.
Jackson and his men’s biggest victory against the Indians was at Horseshoe
Bend. This skirmish took place in present day Alabama. The Indian tribe that was
involved in this skirmish were the Red Stick Indians. By the time the battle
was over, the American forces, led by Jackson, had routed the Red Stick Indians.
The Indians were forced to sign the Treaty of Fort Jackson, which gave all
their lands to the United States government.[i]
Andrew Jackson was quickly establishing himself as a very capable military
general.
After the Battle of
Horseshoe Bend, Andrew Jackson and his men continued their trek southward. They
eventually reached Florida and the town of Pensacola. This battle was fought
against the Spaniards. The goal of this battle was to attack the Spanish and
force them to help the United States drive the British out of Florida. If they
did not agree to this, then they would be routed. Jackson sent a couple of
scouts out to see how imposing the Spanish forces really were. The scouts came
back and gave the United States Army permission to attack. Jackson and the
American forces charged, but they did not kill anyone. Instead they just
captured and forced all the Spanish people that were in Pensacola to leave the
city. Jackson and his army told the Spanish people that the only way that they
could go back to their city was if they agreed to help the United States to get
rid of the British. The Spanish refused so Jackson took off further south.[ii]
After the failed
attempt at Pensacola, Jackson and his men moved southward to Mobile, Alabama.
The British Navy had been spotted at the port in Mobile. Jackson and his men
were hoping that they could capture the navy and prevent them from reaching New
Orleans. When the United States forces got to Mobile, the British were nowhere
to be found. Jackson decided to appeal to a local band of pirates for help. The
pirates told Jackson that the British were indeed heading for New Orleans.[iii]
This is what Jackson and his men had feared. The battle that would occur would
become the most famous battle of the War of 1812.
While all of these
events were occurring, the United States and the British were negotiating a
treaty in Ghent, Belgium. This treaty would end the war, but really did nothing
else other than that. Jackson and his forces were unaware of these negotiations.
They continued their march toward New Orleans to stop the British. Jackson
wanted to prevent the British from taking New Orleans and having direct access
to the Gulf of Mexico and the Mississippi River.
Jackson and his men
were welcomed with open arms upon arriving at New Orleans. William Claiborne
and Edward Livingston were already stationed in New Orleans. Both of these men
had been working tirelessly to ward off British attempts to invade the city.
Claiborne and Jackson were fellow Tennessee residents and lawyers and had been
in contact with each other for quite some time. Jackson and Claiborne decided
to use free blacks to help in their fight against the British. Around three to
four hundred free blacks enlisted in the United States Army. They were put in
the same regiments as regular American soldiers.[iv]
This would prove to be a very effective decision.
The three men thought
that the most logical point of attack for the British would be a water route
that ran from the Gulf of Mexico to Lake Borgne as well as Lake Pontchartrain.
In order to protect this path, five gunboats were stationed at the opening of
the pass. There was also a sandbar that was put in place to protect this path.
The sandbar made sure that no ships that were over five draft feet could get
through. Most of the British ships were larger than the five draft feet, so
they were unable to get through.[v]
The next fortifications
that the United States forces had to make to protect the city of New Orleans
were the roads. In order to properly fortify the roads, troops were stationed
along the roads leading into and out of New Orleans. The thing that concerned
Andrew Jackson and his troops was that they did not know which way the British
would come into the city.[vi] They had to
leave everything up to blind chance.
Before the British
arrived, Jackson appointed Edward Livingston his aide and confidential advisor.
Livingston was put in charge of all the New Orleans defenses. Livingston was
suited for this job because he spoke fluent French and could communicate
effectively with almost anyone. After Jackson appointed Livingston as
commander, he went out and made sure that every possible way to access the city
was properly fortified. Livingston took his new job very seriously. The
relationship between Livingston and Jackson would become a lifelong one. [vii]
The next area in
which Jackson focused on was the geography of the city of New Orleans and the
land surrounding the city. He wanted to know how many rivers, mountains,
valleys, and the list can keep going, that the British were going to be facing.
Jackson was determined to have the advantage in this battle. In order to do
this Jackson enlisted the help of Major Howell Tatum as well as Arsene
Lacarriere Latour. Together Tatum and Latour took Jackson around the city and
the surrounding area and showed him every single detail of the region. The two
men also provided him with maps of the land that proved to be beneficial to
him. [viii]
After touring the
land in and around New Orleans, Andrew Jackson ordered that all roads as well
as waterways should be blocked. To do this he ordered trees to be placed in the
middle of these access points. He also ordered batteries to be placed at each
point of access to help fend off any threat that might come their way. Soldiers
were also enlisted by the United States Army as spies. They were not as
experienced as the spies that had been serving in the Creek War, but they were
still able to do the job.[ix] Andrew
Jackson was now ready for battle with the British.
On December 14, 1814,
the British officially arrived on American soil. The British forces, led by Nicholas
Lockyer landed at Lake Borgne. When they got there they were met by the United
States navy, led by Daniel T. Patterson. The American navy was much smaller
than the British navy, but they were able to hold their own in this battle. In
the end, the United States navy lost. This loss very much alarmed Andrew
Jackson and his men, as well as the citizens of New Orleans. [x]
After learning of the
British victory at Lake Borgne, tension in the city of New Orleans was
extremely high. In a December 15, 1814 article addressed to the citizens and
soldiers in New Orleans, Thomas L. Butler vowed to deal with the British
accordingly. The letter was written in an effort to encourage or pump up the
citizens and the soldiers who were in New Orleans. Butler told these people to
use every ounce of energy that they had and be patriotic. He said by doing this
they could protect their family and property.[xi]
This article helped to encourage the people who were in and around New Orleans.
It boosted their confidence and moral.
After the navy defeat
at Lake Borgne, Andrew Jackson knew that he would need more troops in order to
compete with the British. He called on his home state of Tennessee to send
volunteer troops to New Orleans to help him out. Jackson’s home state responded
to this plea by sending around 2,000 troops to New Orleans. These men mixed in
with others that came, plus the men already there led to a great army for
Jackson. An army that had been outnumbered now had around 5,000 men.[xii]
The United States was now ready to go to battle with the British.
In order to
strengthen the United States navy, Edward Livingston decided to enlist the help
of the Bartarian Pirates. The Pirates had already been offered a position in
the British Navy, but had refused. These men had great knowledge of the seas
and the weapons needed to win this battle. The leader of the Baratarian Pirates
was Jean Lafitte. Lafitte had destroyed a United States naval base earlier
during the War of 1812. He was facing legal trouble as a result. Livingston
took advantage of this in convincing the Pirates to join the navy. Livingston
said that he could get them acquitted of their charges, if they agreed to join
forces with the Americans. Lafitte and his men agreed. Andrew Jackson was not
very sure about this, but Livingston told him that they would be an asset. [xiii]
By January 7, 1815,
both the Americans and the British were ready for battle. Both sides had over
10,000 troops that were involved in this battle in one way or another. Most of
these men would not see any action on the east bank. The British were led by
General Edward Pakenham. Pakenham’s main goal was to attack the east bank. He
had around 5,000 men along with four 24 pounders, reinforced further by four 18
pounders. Jackson had around 4,700 men made up of eighteen batteries that had
one 32 pounder, three 24 pounders, and also two 18 pounders. Jackson also had
reinforcements that he could count on to help him.[xiv]
Both sides were very even, but each side had advantages. The Americans had an
advantage because they had done much scouting and knew the lay out of the land.
The British had the advantage thanks to their well-trained army and navy. By
the end of the war these advantages would come into play, but not in the way
one would expect.
The British were the
first to attack. They chose to attack on the east bank of the river, near the
Rodriguez Canal. Jackson new this was going to happen because he had scouted
the British’s tendencies, and had also received some intelligence from British
deserters. The attack on the east bank occurred on January 8, 1815. During the
course of the attack, Jackson rode up and down the line on his horse
encouraging his men. He eventually stopped near the center of the line, where
he could have a bird’s eye view of all the action. In order to keep the morale
of the battle high, Jackson ordered music to be played continuously. The
American forces were able to prevail on the east bank. This was due in large
part to the lack of support of the British. The British had stationed too many
troops on the west bank of the river, and these reinforcements were unable to
get there in time. The British also suffered quite severe casualties. General
Samuel Gibbs was shot and killed; Edward Pakenham was also shot in the knee and
killed. The entire attack lasted about an hour and a half.[xv]
While all of this
fighting was occurring, the United States and the British were engaging in a
skirmish on the west bank of the river. Unlike on the east bank, things went
much better for the British. As soon as the British landed on the west bank, they
saw gunfire. They were able to make quick work of the Kentucky and Louisiana
militias. These men were untrained and had little to no artillery with them.[xvi]
The west bank was a complete role reversal for the British, as they were able
to rout the Americans.
In the end, the
Battle of New Orleans was a “glorious victory” for the United States. The
British had a reported 2,037 casualties, whereas the Americans only had seven
killed and six wounded. Among the British forces, the most notable casualties were
generals Pakenham, Gibbs, Dale, and Rennie. It is noted by many historians that
American troops went around and dismembered the bodies of these British generals.[xvii]
Jackson was very happy to report back to President James Monroe of his victory
at New Orleans. He told of his victory at New Orleans in a January 9th
letter to the president. In this letter he told of the actions of his troops.
He also praised the way in which they fought. Jackson told Monroe that he did
not think that the British would be a threat, but they could not afford to let
their guard down. [xviii] This
proved to be a good strategy, as the British would make one more attack on the
Americans at Fort St. Philip. This was a last gasp effort for the British to
gain access to the Mississippi and then invade New Orleans.
After the fighting on
January 8th, the British were feeling regret for leaving the west
bank of the river. The British’s last effort would be sail down the Mississippi
River and sneak behind the lines of Andrew Jackson and take New Orleans. The
only obstacle to the British plan was Fort St. Philip. The fort was heavily armed
and fortified. After the victory on January 8th, Andrew Jackson and
his men had gone to the fort. Once Jackson arrived he inspected the fort to
make sure that it would be able to withstand an attack by the British. Jackson
saw the need for more troops to be brought in, so he did so. He enlisted the help
of some local slaves to build gun emplacements.[xix]
By doing all of this the fort became stronger than the British thought it would
be.
The United States
army stationed two companies of troops at Fort St. Philip. There were a total
of 406 soldiers as well as sailors at the fort. This battle would primarily be
fought on the waters.[xx] The United
States had the advantage, thanks to having a navy with experienced generals. By
having this, the United States was able to make up for their navy being rather
small.
The plan for the
British, following the capture of the fort, was to take the United States
fortification at English Turn. The British knew that if they could get the
fort, then they could make up for their defeat earlier and still be able to
take New Orleans. The British, like the Americans, were extremely confidant in
their navy and felt like that they had the advantage.[xxi]
The first step that
the British needed to make was to blockade the Mississippi River. This would
prevent any unwanted ships from passing through. Finally on January 9th
at 11:30 in the morning the Americans spotted two British ships. The two ships
were trying to figure out how deep the waters were. The United States forces
immediately sprang into action. They began to fire their cannons, forcing the
ships to turn back. The United States forces took their positions in the fort
as soon as the cannons were fired.[xxii] The final
attack at the Battle of New Orleans was on.
A few hours after the
first shot was fired, a somewhat heavy rain began to fall. At approximately
3:30 in the afternoon, the British took their position behind a bend in the
river. This position was about 3,960 yards from the fort. The British forces
were the first to fire. They fired a total of four sea mortars at the
Americans. The United States forces were somewhat concerned because the British
troops were out of range. Despite this obstacle, the American forces still
maintained their position at the fort[xxiii].
This would prove to be a great move by the United States.
Fighting continued
for the next three days. It was more of a game of cat and mouse. The British
would fire a shot, and then the United States would answer. The weather did not
help matters for either side at all. It rained every day that the battle was
being fought. The only time the two sides ceased fire was to have lunch and
dinner. By January 16th the fortunes of the Americans changed. The
rain ceased, and with it, the morale of the American forces grew.[xxiv]
They now felt like they could win this attack.
While all of this was
going on at Fort St. Philip, Andrew Jackson was at Chalmette. He was able to
hear the cannon fire at the nearby fort. He knew that he had to do something.
He decided to begin cannonading of the British line. He felt by doing this, he
could harass the British, and force them to flee. This did indeed drive the
British crazy. It is noted that many British deserters told the Americans that
Jackson’s cannonading kept the British forces up at night and made them irritable.[xxv]
Based on this information, Jackson could be considered the first modern day
sniper.
The United States
forces began an effort to encourage British troops to desert. They particularly
targeted the British sentinels. They used the promises of land and money to
sway their decisions. One British general noted that within a week, there were
many men who quit the British military and sided with the United States.[xxvi]
A few days later, the
American forces forced the British to evacuate their ships. The vessels were
set on fire, and the men on board were captured. The British were trapped. They
were running out of supplies, and there were no reinforcements that could get
to them.[xxvii]
The British were beat, and they knew it. The Americans, led by Andrew Jackson
were overjoyed to have defied the odds and won this battle.
In a January 25th
letter to President James Monroe, Andrew Jackson told of all the exploits that
occurred during this final attack. He praised his men for their prowess and
said that thanks to their incredible confidence, and love for their country,
they were able to win the war. He said that each of his men were entitled to
merit for their efforts during the entire battle.[xxviii]
It is noted by many historians that there was a great outbreak of pride and
patriotism in Washington after learning of the American victory at New Orleans.
Andrew Jackson was now a hero.
The Battle of New
Orleans ended a fourteen month run that Andrew Jackson had had where he had not
lost a single battle. The Battle of New Orleans would be the last battle that
Jackson would ever fight. One of the factors that historians believe caused
Jackson to be so successful is that he had a really good grip on strategy and
tactics. Jackson never read any “how to” manuals, instead he relied on common
sense to help him be successful on the battlefield. Jackson also was a master
when it came to battlefield tactics. He could deploy his men in battle in a way
that gave him a good chance to win.[xxix] All of
these factors and more led to Andrew Jackson becoming one of the best generals
of the War of 1812.
After his service in
the War of 1812, Andrew Jackson decided to enter politics. On April 6, 1815,
Jackson, his wife Rachel, and their young son left New Orleans for Nashville.[xxx]
As far as politics go, Jackson was the winner of The Battle of New Orleans’s
political legacy. He became the leading political figure of postwar America.[xxxi]
This would continue to be the case until 1829, when he was elected president of
the United States. Jackson served in this role until 1832. He went from being
nothing more than a country boy from Tennessee to the President of the United
States. All of this was accomplished thanks to his amazing heroics and exploits
at the Battle of New Orleans. Andrew Jackson will forever be known as The Hero
of New Orleans.
Above is a picture of Andrew Jackson.
Above is a picture of Edward Pakenham.
Above is a map of The Battle of New Orleans.
The book The Battle of New Orleans, by Robert Remini was very vital to me throughout my research process. Book is highly recommended.
The book Glorious Victory, by Donald Hickey was also vital for me in writing this paper. It is the newest book published about the Battle of New Orleans, and comes highly recommended because of the author.
Stay tuned for more blog posts about tales from Tennessee and beyond.
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